Proportion & Scale

Creating a sense of order and harmony among the elements in a visual construction is the purpose of all theories of proportions. The theories of proportion: Golden Section, Classical Orders, Renaissance Theories, Modular, Ken, Anthropometry, and Scale.

Golden Section

The Golden Section is defined as the ratio between two sections of a line, or the two dimensions of a plane. The lesser of the two is to the greater as the greater is to the sum of both. The Golden Section cannot only be found in architecture but also in many living organisms.

The Orders

The basic unit of dimension for the Classical Orders is the diameter of the column. The orders are not based on a unit of measurement but instead are used to ensure that all of the parts are proportionate and in harmony with each other.

Renaissance Theories

The architects of the Renaissance believed that their buildings had to belong to a higher order and so they returned to the Greek mathematical system of proportions. Using Pythagoras’ theory of means to ratios they developed a progression of ratios that formed the basis of proportions of their architecture.

The Modular

Developed by Le Corbusier, the Modular proportional system is based on both mathematics, such as the Golden Section, and on the proportions of the human body.

The “Ken”

Originally used to designate the interval between two columns , it soon became a standard for residential architecture., and an absolute measurement. It not only became a measurement for the construction of buildings but also evolved into an aesthetic module that ordered the structure, materials, and space of Japanese architecture.

Anthropomorphic

Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the size and proportion of the human body. The dimensions and proportions of the human body affect the proportions of things we handle, the height and distance of things we try to reach, and the dimensions of the furnishings we use for sitting, working, eating, and sleeping.

Scale

Scale refers to how the viewer perceives or judges the size of something. Scale is always a comparison of one thing to another. In drawing, we use a scale that specifies the ratio that determines the relationship between an illustration to that which it represents using visual scale, human scale, and scalar comparisons.

Circulation

A path of movement can be conceived as the strand that combines and associates the adjacent spaces.  According to Francis D.K. Ching, author of Architecture:  Form, Space, and Order, “Since we move in Time through a Sequence of Spaces, we experience a place in relation to where we’ve been and where we anticipate going.

Building Approach

The Distant View: Before a user actually passes into the interior of a building, they will approach its entrance along a designated path. In this first phase of the circulation system, the user will be introduced to the experiences and uses of the spaces. The approach may vary from a quick, compressed space to a lengthy, circuitous route. It may be perpendicular to the façade or at an angle. The approach may be continued in the interior spaces of the building or contrast sharply.

Building Entrances

From Outside to Inside:  Entering a building involves the act of penetrating a vertical plane that distinguishes one space from another.  It can be signified in more subtle ways than punching a hole in a wall.  Passing through an implied plane or even a change in level can establish a threshold or mark a passage from one place to another.  The form of the opening can also range from a simple hole to an intricate gateway.  Entrances may be grouped into three categories:  flush, projected, and recessed.

Configuration of the Path

The Sequence of Spaces:  All paths of movement are linear in some sense.  All paths have a starting point, from there each user is taken through a sequence of spaces to a specified destination.  A path influences and is influenced by the organization of the adjacent spaces it combines.  The configuration may reinforce the spatial organization by paralleling its pattern or it may contrast with the form and serve as a visual counterpoint to it.  Paths can be considered:  Linear, Radial, Spiral, Grid, Network, or Composite.

Path-Space Relationships

Edges, Nodes, and Terminations of the Path:  Paths may be related to the spaces they link by passing by spaces, which helps maintain the integrity of each space.   Passing through spaces can create patterns of rest and movement within it.   Terminating a path within a space is used to approach and enter a space functionally or symbolically. 

Form of the Circulation Space

Form of the circulation  space includes corridors, halls, galleries, stairways, and rooms.  The form of a circulation space can vary depending on:  its boundaries;  the form of the spaces it links;  its qualities of scale, proportion, light and view; entrances opening on it; and how the levels change with ramps or stairs.  A circulation space may be enclosed,  open on one side, or open on both sides.   The width and height of a circulation space should be proportionate to the type and amount of movement it must handle while providing a distinction in scale. 

Organization

Spatial Relationships

Previously, we have looked at form and defining space.  However, very few buildings are made up of just space.  They are more often composed of numerous spaces that relate to each other in function, proximity, or circulation.  There are several ways that two spaces may be related to each other:

Space within a Space

A space may be contained within the volume of a larger space.  The edges of the interior space must be visible for the space to read as a space within a space.

 

Interlocking Spaces

This happens when the field of a space overlaps the volume of another space.

 

Adjacent Spaces

Two spaces sharing a common border or sitting next to each other are considered adjacent.

Spaces Linked by a Common Space

Two spaces may rely on an middle space to form a relationship.

Spatial Organizations

There are several basic ways in which we as designers organize the spaces of a building.  Typically, there are requirements for the various spaces within a building.  Requirements such as:

•Incorporating Specific Functions or Forms

•Flexible

•Similar Functions that must be Grouped into a Functional Cluster

•Light, Ventilation, Outlook, or Access to Outdoor Space

•Privacy

•Accessibility

By arranging spaces in an organized manner a designer can clarify the importance and function of a space.  Deciding what type of organization to use depends on:

•Demands of the building program:  functional proximities, dimensional requirements, hierarchical classification, and requirements for access, light, or view.

•Exterior conditions.

Centralized Organization

Secondary spaces are grouped around a central, dominant space.  This organizational system acts as a unifying agent with concentrated, stabling characteristics.

Linear Organization

A linear sequence of repetitive spaces.  This form of organization directs the eye and gives the sense of following a path.

Radial Organization

Linear organizations of space extended from a central space in a radial manner.

 

Clustered Organization

Spaces are  grouped by proximity or a common visual trait or relationship.  This organizational system provides flexibility and changeability.

 

Grid Organization

Spaces organized within the field of a structural grid or other three-dimensional framework.  This sets up a proportional system that provides a frame of order or reference.

Form and Space

The Unity of Opposites

In our visual field, we organize elements into two opposite categories:  positive elements, which are usually perceived as solid figures and negative elements, the space around the figures or the background.

Our perception of the positive and negative determines how viewers see the entire composition.  Often value contrast and placement help the image become less ambiguous.  In this image, the planes can visually be seen as positive space while the cut-outs provide negative space together they form a unity of opposites.

Defining Space with Horizontal Elements

Horizontal elements articulate a volume of space, in which vertical boundaries are implied.  There are four horizontal elements that will define space:  Base Plane, Elevated Base Plane, Depressed Base Plane, and Overhead Plane.  The example below shows an overhead plane that has been lowered to shape and enclose the space. 

Defining Space with Vertical Linear Elements

Vertical forms have a greater presence  than horizontal planes, which means they are more involved in defining the volume of space and providing a sense of enclosure and privacy.  They also serve to separate spaces from one another as well as provide structural supports for base and overhead planes.  This image is of the Parthenon built in ancient Greece.  The Greeks used columns as structural elements to enclose and define space.

 

Qualities of Architectural Space

The spatial qualities of form, proportion, scale, texture, light, and sound define the enclosure of a space.  Our perception of these qualities is influenced by our culture, experiences, and personal interests.  The degree of enclosure, the view, and the amount of light entering a space are influencing qualities of a room.  The image shows floor to ceiling windows that allow a user to view the landscape.

Openings in Space-Defining Elements

This image highlights the openings within the planes, such as, the doors, windows, and skylight.  Equally as important as the elements that define and enclose a space are the openings in space.  Openings aid in circulation patterns, allow light into a space, and build visual relationships between a room and the adjacent spaces, as well as providing natural ventilation of the space.  Openings can exist within planes, at corners, and between planes. 

 

Form

Form is another element of design with multiple meanings.  It is often used in reference to the manner of arranging and organizing the elements and parts of a composition to create a complete image.  Form also references both the internal and external structure giving three-dimensional mass and volume to a primary shape.  

Primary Solids

Primary solids are shapes, such as circles, squares, and triangles, which have been stretched to produce volumetric or three dimensional forms.  These familiar circles create spheres, squares become cubes, and triangles form pyramids.  The most common pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids, such as the Great Pyramids of Giza, which can be seen below.  

Dimensional Transformation

If a form is not considered a primary solid it is considered to be a form transformed by alternating one or more of its dimensions.  A cube can be extended in height, width, or length to create a rectangle or a plane.  A circle can be stretched to form an ellipse as you can see in the image below.

Subtractive Forms

A form can also be transformed by subtracting a percentage of its volume.  Depending on how much is subtracted; the form can still retain its initial identity or can be transformed into something new.  The example shows a corner in a room that has been cutout and given a new shape.

Additive Forms

By adding elements, a form can also be transformed.  Depending on the type of additions and the number and sizes of the elements added, the initial identity can be altered or retained.  The particular image below demonstrates a type of additive form:  Radial Form, which transforms into a composition of linear forms that extend outward from a central form.  Other forms included Centralized Forms, Linear Forms, Clustered Forms, and Grid Forms.

Formal Collision of Geometry

Formal Collision of Geometry occurs when two forms that differ in geometry or orientation collide and intertwine.  This collision can occur in numerous ways; two forms can merge to create a new form, one of the two forms can engulf the other within its volume, the two forms can share just an interlocking portion of their volumes, or the two forms can be separated but linked by a third element.  The example in the image shows the cylinder of the sink intercept the rectangular counter.